All absolute dates given below follow the Middle Chronology. Reconstructing an absolute chronology, that is measuring the exact chronological distance to present time, is still problematic for ancient Mesopotamia. Several systems have been proposed, of which the "Middle Chronology" is the most frequently used. This puts the reign of Hammurabi of Babylon at 1792-1750 BC (Before Christ) or BCE (Before Common Era).
| Periods (Dates BC) | Selected important events and kings |
|---|---|
| Late Uruk period (ca. 3500-3200/3150) | First city-states; urbanism; complex administration; invention of writing ('proto-cuneiform'), possibly Sumerian |
| Jamdat Nasr Period (ca. 3150-2900) | Breakdown of Uruk-networks; evolution of writing |
| Early Dynastic Period I-II (ca. 2900-2600) | Growing importance of city-states; archaic texts from Ur |
| Early Dynastic IIIa (ca. 2600-2500) | Conflicts between city states; cuneiform writing used more extensively (e.g. first literary texts, both in Sumerian and a Semitic language); archives from Fara (ancient Šurrupag) and Tell Abū Ṣalābiḫ. Prominent king Mesanepada c. 2500 |
| Early Dynastic IIIb (ca. 2500-2340) | City-states fight one another for hegemony over southern Mesopotamia; archives of Tello (ancient Girsu); Lagaš-Umma border conflict; Lugalzagesi succeeds in briefly conquering large parts of Mesopotamia. Prominent king Lugalzagesi c. 2350 |
| (Old) Akkadian (ca. 2340-2200) | First World Empire; Sargon of Akkad founded dynasty, defeats Lugalzagesi, conquers large parts of Near East; power centre shifts to north; Akkadian, oldest Semitic language, becomes language of administration in some areas. Narām-Sîn of Akkad, his grandson, defeats a rebellion of southern Mesopotamian city states and is deified in response. Old Akkadian Dynasty Sargon I 2323-2278 Maništušu 2269-2255 Naram-Sin 2254-2218 Šar-kali-šarri 2217-2193 |
| Guti/Post-Akkadian (ca. 2000-2112) | It is unclear how long this period lasted and what happened during this time.
In the city-state of Lagaš, Gudea, famous for his statues and the cylinders, ruled; he was probably a contemporary of Ur-Namma of Ur. Lagash (Post-OAKK/Guti) Lumma Lagash II Gudea |
| Ur III / Third Dynasty of Ur (ca. 2112-2004) | Ur-Namma of Ur rebuilds large territorial state, succeeded by Šulgi; this period is sometimes called a 'Sumerian renaissance,' because Sumerian became once more the language of administration. The Ur III kings, almost all of whom were deified, left a large literary legacy, in particular of self-laudatory hymns. Main rulers Ur-Namma 2112-2095 Šulgi 2094-2047 Amar-Suen 2046-2038 Šu-Sin 2037-2029 Ibbi-Sin 2028-2004 |
| Old Babylonian Period (ca. 2004-1595) | Some historians call this phase the 'Amorite' age, because a North-West-Semitic peoples called the Amorites became part of the ruling elites. The first two centuries are dominated by the city-states of Isin and Larsa, who vie for hegemony over Mesopotamia. In 1763 Hammurabi of Babylon conquers Larsa and once more builds an empire that stretches as far as northern Syria. Yet his empire was short-lived and soon collapsed. Akkadian becomes more important as the written language of choice. In 1595 the Hittites raided and destroyed Babylon. Dynasty of Isin Iddin-Dagan 1974-1954 Išme-Dagan 1953-1935 Lipit-Eštar 1934-1924 Ur-Ninurta 1923-1896 Enlil-bani 1860-1837 Dynasty of Larsa Sin-iddinam 1849-1843 Sin-iqišam 1840-1836 Warad-Sin 1834-1823 Rim-Sin I 1822-1763 First Dynasty of Babylon Sumulael 1880-1845 Hammurabi 1792-1750 Samsuiluna 1749-1712 Ammiṣaduqa 1646-1626 Samsu-ditana 1625-1595 Mari rulers (Yasmah-Addu c.1800) Yahdun-Lim c.1800 Upper Mesopotamian rulers Šamši-Adad I c.1850 Yasmah-Addu c.1800 |
| 'Dark Age' until ca. 1475 (?) | No written sources. |
| Kassite Dynasty (ca. 1475 (?) – 1155) | Kassites, an originally nomadic people, rule over Babylonia and adapt to Babylonian culture. Main rulers Kurigalzu I ? Kadašman-Enlil I (1374)-1360 Kurigalzu II 1332-1308 Kadašman-Enlil II 1263-1255 |
| Middle Assyrian dynasty (ca. 1350-1000) | Assyria, the northern part of Mesopotamia, expands into territorial state, largest success under Tukulti-Ninurta I, becomes an important political and military power. Main rulers Shalmaneser I 1273-1244 Tiglath-Pileser I 1114-1076 |
| Second Dynasty of Isin (ca. 1157-1026) | Nebuchadnezzar I has short-lived military success, he conquers Elam (SW Iran) and puts an end to the Elamite dynasty. Prominent king Nebuchadnezzar I 1125-1104 |
| 'Second Dark Age' (ca. 1100-900) | Lack of sources; this dark age lasted for different periods of time in different regions. In the 8th century, Hebrew and Aramaic appear, Aramaic and its script became more and more important. Undetermined Dynasty Nabû-apla-iddina c.880 |
| Neo-Assyrian Period [http://knp.prs.heacademy.ac.uk/] (ca. ca. 900-612) | Assyrian kings begin expanding their state. The period of the Neo-Assyrian empire is set at 744-612, during which Assyria became the most important political power in the ancient world, conquering not only all of Mesopotamia but also parts of Anatolia and even for a brief time Egypt. In 612 the Assyrian capital Ninive is destroyed, ending the Assyrian dominance. Aramaic begins to replace Akkadian as a spoken language. Neo-Assyrian Dynasty Aššurnaṣirpal II 883-859 Adad-nirari III 810-783 Shalmaneser V 726-722 Sennacherib 704-681 Esarhaddon 680-669 Aššurbanipal 668-627 Sin-šar-iškun -612 |
| Neo-Babylonian Dynasty (ca. 625-539) | Babylon regains its former glory for the brief period of the Neo-Babylonian empire; Nebuchadnezzar II, who completely rebuilt the city of Babylon, was its most famous king. The last ruler, Nabonidus, is famous for having been in 'exile' for ten years. The Neo-Babylonian dynasty is the last native Mesopotamian dynasty. Main rulers Nabopolassar 625-605 Nebuchadnezzar II 604-562 Nabonidus 555-539 |
| Persian/Achaemenid Empire (ca. 538-331) | Persian kings conquer Mesopotamia and incorporate it into their empire, the largest empire to date. Scholarly, religious, and literary texts [http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/gkab] continue to be written in Akkadian, for example at the temple library in Sippar. |
| Macedonian rulers (ca. 330-307) | Alexander the Great of Macedon finally succeeds in defeating the Persian empire during the famous battle of Gaugamela and includes all of its territories, including Mesopotamia, into his own empire. Alexander dies in 323. |
| Seleucid Empire (ca. 305-64) | Seleucus, founder of the Seleucid dynasty, a former general of Alexander the Great, rules over the Near East, Iran, and parts of Central Asia. Seleucid Dynasty Antiochus I Soter 281-261 |
| Parthian or Arsacid Empire (ca. 250 BCE – 224 CE) | The successor to the Seleucid empire, the Parthians, was a dynasty based in ancient Persia. It was probably around 70 AD, the last document was written in cuneiform, ending the ancient Mesopotamian cultural heritage until its rediscovery beginning in the 16th century CE. |
The following books offer basic introductions into the history of ancient Mesopotamia:
Nicole Brisch
Nicole Brisch, 'Mesopotamian history: the basics', Ancient Mesopotamian Gods and Goddesses, Oracc and the UK Higher Education Academy, 2019 [http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/amgg/mesopotamianhistory/]